Etrog, a Royal Assyrian Aromatic Purifier

The Tappuach: Shady, Fragrant, and Tasty

In the Song of Songs,^[1] the woman describes her lover as a tappuach, a tree gives her delightful shade and sweet fruit:

^{שיר השירים ב:ג} כְּתַפּוּחַ בַּעֲצֵי הַיַּעַר כֵּן דּוֹדִי בֵּין הַבָּנִים בְּצִלּוֹ חִמַּדְתִּי וְיָשַׁבְתִּי וּפִרְיוֹ מָתוֹק לְחִכִּי.

^{Song 2:3} As a tappuach among trees of the forest, so [is] my beloved among the sons, in his shade I delighted, and sat down, and his fruit [is] sweet to my palate.

The noun tappuach derives from the root ת.פ.ח “to swell,” i.e., a “swollen, fat, or round fruit” or נ.פ.ח “smell”, so a “scented/fragrant fruit” (HALOT, 1773). But what specific fruit does it refer to in the Bible?

The Song suggests that it offers nice shade:

^{שיר השירים ח:ה} ... תַּחַת הַתַּפּוּחַ עוֹרַרְתִּיךָ...

^{Song 8:5} ...Under the tappuach-tree I have awoken you…

In addition, we are told that the fruit smells nice:

^{שיר השירים ז:ט} ...וְיִהְיוּ נָא שָׁדַיִךְ כְּאֶשְׁכְּלוֹת הַגֶּפֶן וְרֵיחַ אַפֵּךְ כַּתַּפּוּחִים.

^{Song 7:9} …Indeed, let your breasts now be as clusters of the vine, and the fragrance of your face as tappuchim.

Finally, the fruit is refreshing to eat:

^{שיר השירים ב:ה} סַמְּכוּנִי בָּאֲשִׁישׁוֹת רַפְּדוּנִי בַּתַּפּוּחִים...

^{Song 2:5} Sustain me with grape-cakes, refresh me with tappuchim …

As Marvin Pope writes in his commentary,

The nature of the tree and the fruit is uncertain and there has been no lack of suggestions...^[2]

An Apple?

In modern Hebrew, a tappuach refers to an apple,^[3] and this is the most common translation. In his commentary on Song of Songs, Othmar Keel, Professor (Emeritus) supports this translation by noting that “an archaeological dig far to the south (at the fortress of Kadesh in the northeastern Sinai) uncovered more than 200 carbonized apples,”^[4] radiocarbon dated to Iron Age IIA, in the 10^th century B.C.E.^[5]

But tappuach cannot refer to apples as we know them, since the big juicy apple—a fruit whose less palatable ancestors evolved first in the Himalayas and then in Kazakhstan—was unknown prior to the 12the century C.E. ^[6] These small, bitter apples found in Kadesh-barnea—Citrullus colocynthis—were probably used as animal feed and could hardly express a feeling of lusciousness in poetry.^[7] Thus, some scholars have turned to other fruits for the biblical tappuach.

Apricots, Quinces, or Citrons?

Ariel and Chana Bloch translate the phrase as “a branching apricot tree.”^[8] Alternatively, Robert Alter suggests “quince,” and writes in his commentary:

The traditional rendering of “apple tree” cannot be right because apple trees were not cultivated in the ancient Near East… The Blochs opt for “apricot,” which does make sense in regard to its succulence, but it remains conjectural. Quince, a harder fruit, has at least a metrical advantage. Quinces have been used in Greece and perhaps elsewhere in the Mediterranean for many centuries to perfume bedsheets, and that association might be in play in the Song of Songs.^[9]

The 2020 Literal Standard Version^[10] translates the term here and elsewhere in Song of Songs as “citrons,” i.e., Citrus medica L., known in rabbinic Hebrew as etrog.^[11] The citron is an evergreen tree that ranges in height from 3 to 5 meters, one of the three original citrus fruits—together with pomelo (Citrus maxima) and mandarin (Citrus reticulata)—that originated in the foothills of the Indian Himalayas.^[12] Other aromatics, such as nard (Song 1:12), to which the Song of Songs refers can all be connected to India in ca. 7^th or 6^th century B.C.E. as well.^[13] Thus citron appears to be the most likely identification.

Tappuach as Etrog in Rabbinic Interpretation

The translation of tappuach as citron is found in the Targum on Song of Songs (5^th to 7^th cent. C.E.) to this verse:

^{תרגום שיר השירים ב:ג} הֵיכְמָא דְּיָאֵי וּמְשׁוּבַּח אֶתְּרוֹגָא בֵּינֵי אִילַנֵי סְרָק וְכוּלֵּי עָלְמָא מוֹדְעִין יָתֵיהּ...

^{Targum Song of Songs 2:3} Just as the citron is lovely and praiseworthy compared to other shade trees, and this is universally acknowledged…

The anonymous medieval French commentary from the 12^th century Tosafists, also understood tappuach to mean citron:

^{פרוש מחכמי צרפת שיר השירים ב:ג} תפוח הוא העץ שהאתרג תלוי בו וגדל, כמו שהוא בין עצי היער שהוא אילן גבוה ומיצל על הארץ ויש לו ריח טוב...

^{A Commentary from the French Sages Song 2:3} Tappuach is the tree upon which the citron hangs and grows, just as it is among the trees of [Israel’s] forests, for it is a large tree, and gives shade to the earth below, and has a nice fragrance…

The Fruit of the Garden of Eden

In its translation of three of the verses, the Targum of the Song of Songs adds a midrashic element, calling the fruit תַּפּוּחִין דְּגִנְּתָא דְּעֵדֶן, the “tappuachs of the Garden of Eden.” That is, the etrog was identified as the forbidden fruit,^[14] the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge (Gen 2:9, 17).^[15] Rabbi Abba of Acco (3^rd century C.E.) understands the verse as an etrog:

^{בראשית רבה טז:ז} רבי אבא דעכו אמר: אתרוג היה, ההוא דכתיב (בראשית ג:ו) "ותרא האשה כי טוב העץ למאכל", אמרת, צא וראה איזהו אילן שעצו נאכל כפריו? ואין את מוצא אלא אתרוג.

^{Gen Rab 16:7} Rabbi Abba of Acco said: “It was a citron, this is what scripture means when it writes (Gen 3:6) ‘And the woman saw that the tree was good for eating.’ Say, go check which tree’s wood is eaten like its fruit? You will find only the citron.”^[16]

Unlike the apple of the biblical period, if Eve had encountered a citron, she indeed would have found it good to eat. Despite its resemblance to the sour lemon, it is good to eat straight from the tree. It has a subtle, sweet, flavor due to it possessing a unique gene, the Noemi gene, which controls the citron’s acidity levels.^[17] But this is not what makes the citron special—many fruits taste sweeter. Instead, what made the citron a prized object in the ancient world is its smell and its chemical properties as a purifier (more on this below).

How Did the Etrog Get to Judah?

In his Judean Antiquities,^[18] Josephus Flavius (37 C.E. – ca. 100) writes that the citron/etrog was an established part of the festival of Sukkot, during which the Judeans

^{Ant. 3:245 [=10:4]} [T]hey (=the Judeans) were to offer burnt offerings and sacrifices of thanksgiving to God in those days, bearing in their hands a bouquet composed of myrtle and willow with a branch of palm along with fruit of the persea (=citron).

This reflects an interpretation of the verse about Sukkot in the Torah, with the “fruit of the goodly tree” as a citron:

^{ויקרא כג:מ} וּלְקַחְתֶּם לָכֶם בַּיּוֹם הָרִאשׁוֹן פְּרִי עֵץ הָדָר כַּפֹּת תְּמָרִים וַעֲנַף עֵץ עָבֹת וְעַרְבֵי נָחַל וּשְׂמַחְתֶּם לִפְנֵי יְ־הוָה אֱלֹהֵיכֶם שִׁבְעַת יָמִים.

^{Lev 23:40} On the first day you shall take the product of goodly trees, branches of palm trees, boughs of leafy trees, and willows of the brook, and you shall rejoice before YHWH your God seven days.

Yet, for it to have become part of the Jerusalem Temple ritual, it must have already been a known and valued fruit in Judah for many decades. The earliest archaeological evidence for citron cultivation in Judah, based on the presence of pollen, dates to the 5^th century B.C.E.^[19] Nevertheless, some biblical connections between Judean and Assyrian motifs suggest that the citron may have been imported into Judah a few centuries earlier, in the neo-Assyrian period, for use in the Temple and palace.

The Cone-Shaped Object in Aššurnaṣirpal II’s Palace: A Citron?

The earliest known name of the citron is jambila in Sanskrit texts dating to circa 800 B.C.E., as mātuluṅga in Buddhist texts dating to circa 400 B.C.E.^[20] and as bijapura in Ayurvedic medicine. Greek and Latin authors were intrigued by the citron, giving it various names based on its supposed origin. Theophrastus called it melea persike, the Persian apple, or melea medike, the Median apple, while Pliny the Elder (24–79 C.E.) referred to it as malus Assyria, the Assyrian apple.^[21] Although not native to this region, there is good reason to connect the entrance of the citron into the ancient Near East with Assyria.

The palace of Aššurnaṣirpal II (883–859 B.C.E.) in Kalḫu^[22] was the first Assyrian palace whose rooms were decorated with large stone reliefs. The image most frequently displayed on the reliefs were winged-genii, some 221 of these—there are more—are holding a cone-shaped object (a mullilu or purifier) in their right hand, and a bucket in their left hand. The majority of the cone-holding winged-genii were located by doorways with their cones directed towards anyone entering the palace rooms, or the genii were depicted standing behind the king or palace elite with the cones directed at their heads.^[23]

In 1882 François Lenormant first suggested that the object was a fir-cone,^[24] but in 1894, Emanuel Bonavia proposed that the cone-shaped object held by the winged-genii was a citron:

There is, I think, evidence enough to show that the Assyrians must have been well acquainted with the citron, and I thought that possibly the figures holding a cone-fruit might be intended to represent some ceremony in which the citron played a part, and from which the Jews derived their citron ceremony.^[25]

Though Bonavia himself changed his mind later on, the bucket, ostensibly containing water, better supports his original hypothesis. The extraction of essential oil from the citron requires placing it in water to allow the cells, adjacent to the oil glands, to absorb the water and swell. When the cells have swelled pressure is exerted on the oil glands which will then easily release their oil. The action of the water on the newly released oil also enhances its perfume. Thus, the genii hold the bucket of water to assist in dispersing the citron’s purifying oil into the air.

Although the winged-genii with their citron and water bucket are carved in stone their image would have served an apotropaic purpose, protecting the king and his palace.

Purification in the Ancient Near East

Purification rites were a widespread practice in the ancient Near East, and the use of oil to purify was part of a complex ideology since the third millennium B.C.E.^[26] Texts from the ancient Assyrian capital, Aššur, describe:

^{VAT 10165} Preparation of perfumed oils… for the festival when perfumed oil will be poured on the head of the king according to the instructions of Belat-ekalle, the perfume maker.^[27]

Aromatic oils were often part of royal tribute and are frequently mentioned in the annals. For example, Tiglath-Pileser III records that the people of Saba (Sheba in Arabia) brought “all types of aromatics” as tribute to Kalḫu.^[28]

Olive oil was often the preferred purifier; however, plain oils such as bean, sesame, horseradish, and almond were also used in Mesopotamia and Egypt. These oils are not naturally sweet smelling, however, and thus, they needed to be perfumed. To achieve this, the oil had to be rendered astringent by heating and then combined with aromatic essences extracted from fragrant plants; after blending, the mixture was boiled. Finally, a fixative such as resin had to be added to the resultant aromatic oil, rendering it less volatile.

The highly aromatic essential oil contained in the citron’s rind, however, required neither lengthy manufacturing process nor skilled perfumers, and could be used immediately. It would be the perfect ingredient for purification rituals. Thus, its appearance in the ancient Near East must have been revolutionary.

The Purification Properties of the Citron

The citron is unique among the citrus family, as it is dry, having no juice vesicles, and its interior is white and spongy in texture. The peel has a warty surface due to the presence of glands containing essential oil that releases the fragrance. However, it is not just the pleasant perfume that makes the citron special—it is the amazing therapeutic qualities of its aromatic oil.

The oil is a natural purifier: It can destroy many airborne bacterial and fungal diseases, as well as scenting the air. The medical properties of the citron’s essential oil have been used for centuries in Ayurvedic medicine, and recent pharmacological studies have authenticated its value as a multipurpose medicinal agent with the potential to prevent or even reverse certain diseases.^[29]

The knowledge that the citron could protect against epidemics and plagues was never completely lost; it was acknowledged in pharmacopoeias dating from the fifth century B.C.E. to the sixteenth century C.E.,^[30] while even in the nineteenth century C.E. the smell of the citron was considered a prophylactic with such amazing health-giving properties that it could purportedly even restore an invalid to life!

Overlapping Artistic Motifs in the Bible and Assyria

In Isaiah’s vision of YHWH’s giant form in the Temple, he sees YHWH accompanied by seraphim, a type of angelic being:

^{ישעיה ו:ב} שְׂרָפִים עֹמְדִים מִמַּעַל לוֹ שֵׁשׁ כְּנָפַיִם שֵׁשׁ כְּנָפַיִם לְאֶחָד בִּשְׁתַּיִם יְכַסֶּה פָנָיו וּבִשְׁתַּיִם יְכַסֶּה רַגְלָיו וּבִשְׁתַּיִם יְעוֹפֵף.

^{Isa 6:2} Seraphs were in attendance above him; each had six wings: with two they covered their faces, and with two they covered their feet, and with two they flew.^[31]

These beings resemble the winged genii of the palace in Kalḫu. In fact, the seraphim here perform a role similar to that of these cone-holding winged-genii: they purify.

^{ישעיה ו:ה} וָאֹמַר אוֹי לִי כִי נִדְמֵיתִי כִּי אִישׁ טְמֵא שְׂפָתַיִם אָנֹכִי וּבְתוֹךְ עַם טְמֵא שְׂפָתַיִם אָנֹכִי יוֹשֵׁב כִּי אֶת הַמֶּלֶךְ יְ־הוָה צְבָאוֹת רָאוּ עֵינָי. ^ה:ו וַיָּעָף אֵלַי אֶחָד מִן הַשְּׂרָפִים וּבְיָדוֹ רִצְפָּה בְּמֶלְקַחַיִם לָקַח מֵעַל הַמִּזְבֵּחַ. ^ה:ז וַיַּגַּע עַל פִּי וַיֹּאמֶר הִנֵּה נָגַע זֶה עַל שְׂפָתֶיךָ וְסָר עֲו‍ֹנֶךָ וְחַטָּאתְךָ תְּכֻפָּר.

^{Isa 6:5} And I said, “Woe is me! I am lost, for I am a man of unclean lips, and I live among a people of unclean lips, yet my eyes have seen the King, YHWH of hosts!” ^6:6 Then one of the seraphs flew to me, holding a live coal that had been taken from the altar with a pair of tongs. ^6:7 The seraph touched my mouth with it and said, “Now that this has touched your lips, your guilt has departed and your sin is blotted out.”

Similarly, the book of Kings (ca. 7^th/6^th cent. B.C.E.) describes the First Temple as being decorated on the walls of the inner and outer sanctuaries, and on the doors, winged cherubim were interspersed between date palms:

^{מלכים א ו:כט} וְאֵת כָּל קִירוֹת הַבַּיִת מֵסַב קָלַע פִּתּוּחֵי מִקְלְעוֹת כְּרוּבִים וְתִמֹרֹת וּפְטוּרֵי צִצִּים מִלִּפְנִים וְלַחִיצוֹן.... ^ו:לב וּשְׁתֵּי דַּלְתוֹת עֲצֵי שֶׁמֶן וְקָלַע עֲלֵיהֶם מִקְלְעוֹת כְּרוּבִים וְתִמֹרוֹת וּפְטוּרֵי צִצִּים וְצִפָּה זָהָב וַיָּרֶד עַל הַכְּרוּבִים וְעַל הַתִּמֹרוֹת אֶת הַזָּהָב.

^{1 Kgs 6:29} He carved the walls of the house all around about with carved engravings of cherubim, date-palms, and open flowers, in the inner and outer rooms… ^6:32 He covered the two doors of olivewood with carvings of cherubim, palm trees, and open flowers; he overlaid them with gold and spread gold on the cherubim and on the date-palms.

The book of Ezekiel offers the same description:

^{יחזקאל מא:יח} וְעָשׂוּי כְּרוּבִים וְתִמֹרִים וְתִמֹרָה בֵּין כְּרוּב לִכְרוּב...

^{Ezek 41:18} It was formed of cherubim and palm trees, a palm tree between cherub and cherub…

This description echoes the decoration of the palace in Kalḫu, in which the second most popular image depicted—after the winged genii—were some 100 stylized trees, each tree representing a date-palm plantation.^[32] It was this palace that emissaries sent from Judah to Assyria would have been received by the Assyrian King. As Shawn Zelig Aster of Bar Ilan University writes:

Possibly as early as 743 B.C.E. and certainly by 738 B.C.E., ambassadors from the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, like those from other kingdoms who submitted to the resurgent Assyrian Empire headed by Tiglath Pileser III, were received in this throne room. They were received as part of an annual ceremony of tribute remission, attended by high-ranking ambassadors from many submissive kingdoms, who were gathered together in the palace in use by the reigning Assyrian king.^[33]

The throne room, and in particular the adjacent reception rooms, were decorated with most of the over two hundred winged-genii holding citrons plus diffusers, and the approximately one hundred stylized date-palms.^[34] On their return to Jerusalem, the emissaries must have reported on the wonders they had seen in the Assyrian palace, and this may have influenced the Temple’s decorations.

In addition, the Assyrians would have presented gifts to the Judean emissaries to take back to Jerusalem.^[35] It is quite feasible that a citron, with its purifying properties would have been one of these gifts. The citron is easily transportable, and its thick oil-rich skin would have kept it fresh and sweet smelling. It is a very valuable gift, for just one citron can provide several seeds that can be germinated to produce a new citron tree that will produce its own citrons within 3 or 4 years, quickly giving rise to a whole orchard of trees for use.^[36] Indeed, the introduction of the citron as a purifying agent would have made it worthy of cultivation in the Temple precincts.

When this fruit became part of the Sukkot celebration is unknown, though its connection to the palm fronds in Leviticus and the appearance of both citrons and date-palms in the Assyrian palace is striking. Whatever one makes of this, the citron’s life in Judah seems to have begun as an elite item, used by priests and/or royalty in purification, both ritual and concrete.

By the time the Song of Songs was written, the citron had become better known, though still exotic, so that the author can imagine describing a woman meeting her lover under the shade of this luxurious tree, enjoying its fragrance and refreshing herself with its exotic fruit.