A Census Causes a Plague?

The Rules of the Census

As part of the first census in the wilderness, the each Israelite man has to pay half a shekel (Exodus 30:11-16).^[1] Despite the explicit statement that this silver goes to support the Tabernacle, the reason given for this payment is that it serves as a kofer nefesh, a ransom or expiation for each individual’s life, whose purpose is to prevent a plague from hurting them. The need for this “expiation for the life” is emphasized by the four-fold repetition of the root k-p-r (bolded below), “to atone,” in this short, six-verses long, pericope:

Each Israelite being counted must pay a ransom/expiation for his נ-פ-ש.

^{שמות ל:יא} וַיְדַבֵּ֥ר יְ־הֹוָ֖ה אֶל־מֹשֶׁ֥ה לֵּאמֹֽר: ^ל:יב כִּ֣י תִשָּׂ֞א אֶת־רֹ֥אשׁ בְּנֵֽי־יִשְׂרָאֵל֘ לִפְקֻדֵיהֶם֒ וְנָ֨תְנ֜וּ אִ֣ישׁ כֹּ֧פֶר נַפשׁ֛וֹ לַי־הֹוָ֖ה בִּפְקֹ֣ד אֹתָ֑ם...

^{Exod 30:11} YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: ^30:12 When you take a census of the Israelite people according to their enrollment, each shall pay YHWH a ransom/expiation for himself on being enrolled...

Without the payment, plague will follow.

וְלֹא־יִהְיֶ֥ה בָהֶ֛ם נֶ֖גֶף בִּפְקֹ֥ד אֹתָֽם:

that no plague may come upon them through their being enrolled.

The payment is half a shekel (=20 gerahs).

^ל:יג זֶ֣ה׀ יִתְּנ֗וּ כָּל־הָעֹבֵר֙ עַל־הַפְּקֻדִ֔ים מַחֲצִ֥ית הַשֶּׁ֖קֶל בְּשֶׁ֣קֶל הַקֹּ֑דֶשׁ עֶשְׂרִ֤ים גֵּרָה֙ הַשֶּׁ֔קֶל מַחֲצִ֣ית הַשֶּׁ֔קֶל תְּרוּמָ֖ה לַֽי־הֹוָֽה:

^30:13 This is what everyone who is entered in the records shall pay: a half-shekel by the sanctuary weight—twenty gerahs to the shekel—a half-shekel as an offering to Yhwh.

Only males over 20 years of age are counted.

^ל:יד כֹּ֗ל הָעֹבֵר֙ עַל־הַפְּקֻדִ֔ים מִבֶּ֛ן עֶשְׂרִ֥ים שָׁנָ֖ה וָמָ֑עְלָה יִתֵּ֖ן תְּרוּמַ֥ת יְ־הֹוָֽה:

^30:14 Everyone who is entered in the records, from the age of twenty years up, shall give YHWH’s offering:

The sum is fixed with no adjustment for wealth or poverty.^[2]

^ל:טו הֶֽעָשִׁ֣יר לֹֽא־יַרְבֶּ֗ה וְהַדַּל֙ לֹ֣א יַמְעִ֔יט מִֽמַּחֲצִ֖ית הַשָּׁ֑קֶל לָתֵת֙ אֶת־תְּרוּמַ֣ת יְ־הֹוָ֔ה לְכַפֵּ֖ר עַל נַפְשֹׁתֵיכֶֽם:

^30:15 the rich shall not pay more and the poor shall not pay less than half a shekel when giving YHWH’s as expiation for your persons.

These sums are designated for the service of Ohel Moed/ Tabernacle.^[3]

^ל:טז וְלָקַחְתָּ֞ אֶת־כֶּ֣סֶף הַכִּפֻּרִ֗ים מֵאֵת֙ בְּנֵ֣י יִשְׂרָאֵ֔ל וְנָתַתָּ֣ אֹת֔וֹ עַל־עֲבֹדַ֖ת אֹ֣הֶל מוֹעֵ֑ד

^30:16 You shall take the expiation money from the Israelites and assign it to the service of the Tent of Meeting...

The expiation payment is a reminder to God.

וְהָיָה֩ לִבְנֵ֨י יִשְׂרָאֵ֤ל לְזִכָּרוֹן֙ לִפְנֵ֣י יְ־הֹוָ֔ה לְכַפֵּ֖ר עַל־נַפְשֹׁתֵיכֶֽם:

it shall serve the Israelites as a reminder before YHWH, as expiation for your persons.

This passage presents the census as inherently dangerous. The plague is not as a punishment for sin requiring expiation; the census itself is expected to bring about a plague, and the ransom is meant to block any negative consequences of performing it from harming Israel.

David’s Census and the Plague

The notion that counting the population will evoke a plague occurs in the story of the census conducted by King David (2 Samuel 24; retold with some significant differences in 1 Chronicle 21) that begins with YHWH angry at Israel for an unstated reason, and tricking David into conducting a census so that YHWH can then punish the people:

^{שמואל ב כד:א} וַיֹּ֙סֶף֙ אַף יְ־הֹוָ֔ה לַחֲר֖וֹת בְּיִשְׂרָאֵ֑ל וַיָּ֨סֶת אֶת דָּוִ֤ד בָּהֶם֙ לֵאמֹ֔ר לֵ֛ךְ מְנֵ֥ה אֶת יִשְׂרָאֵ֖ל וְאֶת יְהוּדָֽה: ^כד:ב וַיֹּ֨אמֶר הַמֶּ֜לֶךְ אֶל יוֹאָ֣ב׀ שַׂר הַחַ֣יִל אֲשֶׁר אִתּ֗וֹ שֽׁוּט נָ֞א בְּכָל שִׁבְטֵ֤י יִשְׂרָאֵל֙ מִדָּן֙ וְעַד בְּאֵ֣ר שֶׁ֔בַע וּפִקְד֖וּ אֶת הָעָ֑ם וְיָ֣דַעְתִּ֔י אֵ֖ת מִסְפַּ֥ר הָעָֽם:

^{2 Sam 24:1} The anger of YHWH again flared up against Israel; and He incited David against them, saying, “Go and number Israel and Judah.” ^24:2 The king said to Joab, his army commander, “Make the rounds of all the tribes of Israel, from Dan to Beersheba, and take a census of the people, so that I may know the size of the population.”

The only explanation the author can think of for why David would engage in such an obviously foolish and dangerous action is that God incited him into doing so, since it offers an opportunity for the divine anger to be vented against Israel.(According to 1 Chronicles 21:1, Satan, not God is responsible.) Unsurprisingly, Joab is frightened by David’s sudden desire to conduct a census and firmly wishes to dissuade him from going through with it:

^כד:ג וַיֹּ֨אמֶר יוֹאָ֜ב אֶל הַמֶּ֗לֶךְ וְיוֹסֵ֣ף יְ־הֹוָה֩ אֱלֹהֶ֨יךָ אֶל הָעָ֜ם כָּהֵ֤ם׀ וְכָהֵם֙ מֵאָ֣ה פְעָמִ֔ים וְעֵינֵ֥י אֲדֹנִֽי הַמֶּ֖לֶךְ רֹא֑וֹת וַאדֹנִ֣י הַמֶּ֔לֶךְ לָ֥מָּה חָפֵ֖ץ בַּדָּבָ֥ר הַזֶּֽה:

^24:3 Joab answered the king, “May YHWH your God increase the number of the people a hundredfold, while your own eyes see it! But why should my lord king want this?”

As the story continues, David ignores Joab’s warning and Joab conducts the census. Once the census is over, David somehow realizes that he has made a serious error:

^כד:י וַיַּ֤ךְ לֵב דָּוִד֙ אֹת֔וֹ אַחֲרֵי כֵ֖ן סָפַ֣ר אֶת הָעָ֑ם וַיֹּ֨אמֶר דָּוִ֜ד אֶל יְ־הֹוָ֗ה חָטָ֤אתִי מְאֹד֙ אֲשֶׁ֣ר עָשִׂ֔יתִי וְעַתָּ֣ה יְ־הֹוָ֔ה הַֽעֲבֶר נָא֙ אֶת־עֲוֹ֣ן עַבְדְּךָ֔ כִּ֥י נִסְכַּ֖לְתִּי מְאֹֽד:

^24:10 But afterward David reproached himself for having numbered the people. And David said to YHWH, “I have sinned grievously in what I have done. Please, O YHWH, remit the guilt of Your servant, for I have acted foolishly.”

God refuses to forgive David, and sends the prophet Gad with a message offering David an option of three different punishments: seven years of famine, three months of a losing war, or three days of a plague.^[4] David chooses the third, and the plague ends up killing seventy-thousand people.

Is Census-Taking Always Dangerous?

Unlike Exodus 30, the plague here is not the natural result of census-taking but only one of several possible punishments for the foolish act of taking a census. Moreover, the Bible contains numerous anecdotes of other censuses, including the three censuses conducted in the wilderness, some by explicit divine command: in the book of Numbers 1-2, 26, and 31, and nearly a dozen censuses or counting of people attributed to, e.g., Joshua (Joshua 8:10), King Saul (1 Samuel 11:8, 13:15, 15:4), and even King David (2 Samuel 18:1). In none of these cases does the census raise either human opposition or divine sanction, and it certainly does not carry any threat of plague.

These contradictions led to several attempts by ancient and medieval commentators to reframe census-taking as not inherently problematic, but dependent on how it is conducted.

Chronicles: Joab Did the Census Wrong

The Chronicler, who retells the story of 2 Samuel 24, implies that a census per se is not a problem, only a census conducted differently than the one specified in Exodus. The evil of David’s census was not absolute, but rather, a breach of the law that forbids counting those younger than twenty years old. Joab, David’s army chief, breaks the census law and ignores David’s instructions:

^{דברי הימים א כז:כג} וְלֹא נָשָׂ֤א דָוִיד֙ מִסְפָּרָ֔ם לְמִבֶּ֛ן עֶשְׂרִ֥ים שָׁנָ֖ה וּלְמָ֑טָּה כִּ֚י אָמַ֣ר יְ־הֹוָ֔ה לְהַרְבּ֥וֹת אֶת יִשְׂרָאֵ֖ל כְּכוֹכְבֵ֥י הַשָּׁמָֽיִם: ^כז:כד יוֹאָ֨ב בֶּן צְרוּיָ֜ה הֵחֵ֤ל לִמְנוֹת֙ וְלֹ֣א כִלָּ֔ה וַיְהִ֥י בָזֹ֛את קֶ֖צֶף עַל יִשְׂרָאֵ֑ל וְלֹ֤א עָלָה֙ הַמִּסְפָּ֔ר בְּמִסְפַּ֥ר דִּבְרֵֽי הַיָּמִ֖ים לַמֶּ֥לֶךְ דָּוִֽיד:

^{1 Chron 27:23} David did not take a census of those under twenty years of age, for YHWH had promised to make Israel as numerous as the stars of heaven. ^27:24 Joab son of Zeruiah did begin to count them, but he did not finish; wrath struck Israel on account of this, and the census was not entered into the account of the chronicles of King David.

This version clears the king from blame, which fits with the Chronicler’s exclusively positive attitude toward David.^[5] The Chronicler likely chose the age stipulation as the problem, since it appears in several other census texts as well (Numbers 1:3, 26:2).

Josephus and Nahmanides: Not Using the Half-Shekel

Josephus suggests that David did not pay a ransom, as mandated in Exodus 30:

^{Jud Ant 7.318} Now King David, wishing to know how many ten thousands there were among his people, ignored the commandments of Moyses, who had previously prescribed that, if the crowd were counted, a half-shekel per head was to be paid to God. (Begg trans.)

The medieval commentator R. Moses Nahmanides (ca. 1195–ca. 1270) also takes this approach:

^{רמב"ן שמות ל:יא} ומפני שלא נתפרש כאן אם היא מצות דורות או לשעה במשה במדבר, טעה דוד ומנה אותם בלא שקלים, והיה הנגף בהם.

^{Nahmanides Exod 30:11} Because it was not explicitly [instructed] here (=Exodus 30) whether this is a command for all generations or a command specific for Moses in the wilderness, David erred and counted them without [collecting] shekels, and thus the plague came upon them (my translation).^[6]

Gersonides: Without God’s Mandate

R. Levi Gersonides (Ralbag, 1288-1344) suggests that David counted his troops unnecessarily, without a direct command from God. He thus erred in trusting in human strength, rather than putting full faith in God as Israel’s defender.

^{רלב"ג שמואל ב כד:א} …בבטחו על רוב העם, ולא היה ראוי שיבטח כי אם בשם יתברך לבדו.

^{Gersonides 2 Sam 24:1} ...[David erred] in trusting in the multitude of the people, while he should have put faith fully in YHWH.^[7]

This interpretation as well seems forced and apologetic; after all, in other places David counts his troops, with no divine command, and without any dire consequences.

Why is Census-taking Sinful?

Taking Exodus 30 and 2 Samuel 24 on their own terms, contemporary and medieval scholars have been offered several solutions as to why conducting a census is considered dangerous:

Forced labor—Moshe Garsiel notes that a census reflected subjugation to the civil authorities and was part of a system requiring payment of taxes, participation in forced-labor projects, and being subject to the military drafts.^[8] Thus, the census was rejected for populist reasons.

Evil Eye—Rashi (R. Solomon Yitzhaki, 1040–ca. 1105) suggests that the problem is one of Ayin haRa, the “Evil Eye,” an evil presence lurking within the census brought about by the danger of “seeing” the number of the people:

^{רש"י שמות ל:יא} שהמנין שולט בו עין הרע והדֶבֶר בא עליהם כמו שמצינו בימי דוד.

^{Rashi Exod 30:11} ...the counting is controlled by Ayin haRa and the plague came to them, as we found in the days of David.”

The precursors of this explanation can be found already in the Talmud (e.g., b. Yoma 22b).^[9]

Ritual Impurity—Following evidence from Mari (second millennium B.C.E. Mesopotamia) and Rome that the terms used for census were semantically related to purity, William Propp suggests that censuses may have been seen as creating a “ritual impurity.”^[10]

Only YHWH May Count Israel—Only YHWH knows the number of the stars and their names (Psalms 147:4); thus, only he can count Israel, in order to “to make Israel as numerous as the stars of heaven.” (1 Chronicles 27:23). People may not appropriate this divine prerogative.

None of the possibilities are fully compelling; the source and meaning of the prohibition to conduct a census remains uncertain. Nevertheless, the type of punishment offers some insight.

Measure for Measure Punishment

The מדה כנגד מדה, “measure for measure” for conducting a census is striking: improper counting brings about a plague, which causes mass death.^[11] This alters the number of people, making the census’ results meaningless, and thus, the number of Israelites remains unknown.