Forty: A Biblical Symbol of Completeness

The elemental purpose of a chronicler is to record events in a trustworthy and linear manner: to mark the length of wars, famines, or a sovereign’s reign by referral to dates and durations. Accuracy is broadly a paramount value. But if the narrative before us is not a chronicle, and more closely resembles literature than history, then recollection of the past serves different purposes.

Adjustments are made to emphasize certain lessons, words are selected and patterned in keeping with artistic modes. Consider the gist of Pharaoh’s dreams: ‘that seven years of feast shall be followed by seven years of famine.’ (Gen. 41) When is history ever so neat?^[1]

Forty Days

The most important and best-known symbolic number in the Bible is seven,^[2] but a close second is forty.[3] Again and again, the Bible uses “forty days” to express a complete unit of time, such as a maximal amount of time for enduring something or a minimal amount of time to complete something, depending on the context.

The Flood: A Complete Destruction—YHWH tells Noah that in another seven days, it will rain for forty days:

^{בראשית ז:ד} כִּי לְיָמִים עוֹד שִׁבְעָה אָנֹכִי מַמְטִיר עַל הָאָרֶץ אַרְבָּעִים יוֹם וְאַרְבָּעִים לָיְלָה וּמָחִיתִי אֶת כָּל הַיְקוּם אֲשֶׁר עָשִׂיתִי מֵעַל פְּנֵי הָאֲדָמָה.

^{Gen 7:4} For in seven days’ time I will make it rain upon the earth, forty days and forty nights, and I will blot out from the earth all existence that I created.

Seven and forty are both numbers that communicate something symbolically. The former is a short period of waiting—a week—while the latter expresses a long stretch of time, sufficient to completely flood the earth.^[4]

A Full Wait—Noah then waits forty days before opening an exterior window and sending forth the birds:

^{בראשית ח:ו} וַיְהִי מִקֵּץ אַרְבָּעִים יוֹם וַיִּפְתַּח נֹחַ אֶת חַלּוֹן הַתֵּבָה אֲשֶׁר עָשָׂה.

^{Gen 8:6} At the end of forty days, Noah opened the window of the ark that he had made.

When the bird does not find dry land, Noah waits seven days, and then another seven days (Gen 8:10, 12), reversing the order of numbers from the beginning of the story.

Revelation and the Divine Presence—When Moses goes up Mount Sinai, he remains on the mountain for 40 days, the full measure of time necessary to receive God’s instruction:^[5]

^{שמות כד:יח} וַיָּבֹא מֹשֶׁה בְּתוֹךְ הֶעָנָן וַיַּעַל אֶל הָהָר וַיְהִי מֹשֶׁה בָּהָר אַרְבָּעִים יוֹם וְאַרְבָּעִים לָיְלָה.

^{Exod 24:18} Moses went inside the cloud and ascended the mountain; and Moses remained on the mountain forty days and forty nights.^[6]

^{דברים ט:יא} וַיְהִי מִקֵּץ אַרְבָּעִים יוֹם וְאַרְבָּעִים לָיְלָה נָתַן יְ־הוָה אֵלַי אֶת שְׁנֵי לֻחֹת הָאֲבָנִים לֻחוֹת הַבְּרִית.

^{Deut 9:11} At the end of those forty days and forty nights, YHWH gave me the two tablets of stone, the Tablets of the Covenant.

Fasting—Before receiving the tablets for the second time, Moses goes up the mountain for forty days, during which he lives without food:

^{שמות לד:כח} וַיְהִי שָׁם עִם יְ־הוָה אַרְבָּעִים יוֹם וְאַרְבָּעִים לַיְלָה לֶחֶם לֹא אָכַל וּמַיִם לֹא שָׁתָה וַיִּכְתֹּב עַל הַלֻּחֹת אֵת דִּבְרֵי הַבְּרִית עֲשֶׂרֶת הַדְּבָרִים.

^{Exod 34:28} And he was there with YHWH forty days and forty nights; he ate no bread and drank no water; and he wrote down on the tablets the terms of the covenant, the Ten Commandments.

In Deuteronomy, Moses describes fasting for forty days during the first revelation as well:

^{דברים ט:ט} ...וָאֵשֵׁב בָּהָר אַרְבָּעִים יוֹם וְאַרְבָּעִים לַיְלָה לֶחֶם לֹא אָכַלְתִּי וּמַיִם לֹא שָׁתִיתִי. ^ט:י וַיִּתֵּן יְ־הוָה אֵלַי אֶת שְׁנֵי לוּחֹת הָאֲבָנִים כְּתֻבִים בְּאֶצְבַּע אֱלֹהִים...

^{Deut 9:9} … and I stayed on the mountain forty days and forty nights, eating no bread and drinking no water. ^9:10 And YHWH gave me the two tablets of stone inscribed by the finger of God…

The theme of a forty-day fast appears again when Elijah journeys to Mt. Horeb:

^{מלכים א יט:ח} וַיָּקָם וַיֹּאכַל וַיִּשְׁתֶּה וַיֵּלֶךְ בְּכֹחַ הָאֲכִילָה הַהִיא אַרְבָּעִים יוֹם וְאַרְבָּעִים לַיְלָה עַד הַר הָאֱלֹהִים חֹרֵב.

^{1 Kings 19:8} He arose and ate and drank; and with the strength from that meal he walked forty days and forty nights as far as the mountain of God at Horeb.

The New Testament uses forty this way as well. The Gospel of Mark (1:12–13) tells how Jesus spends 40 days in the wilderness with the wild beasts, being tested by Satan, and the Gospel of Matthew (4:1–4) has him fasting throughout this period.^[7]

Prayer—40 days is the measure of days necessary for Moses’ prayer to gain God’s forgiveness for the people’s worship of the Golden Calf.

^{דברים ט:כה} וָאֶתְנַפַּל לִפְנֵי יְ־הוָה אֵת אַרְבָּעִים הַיּוֹם וְאֶת אַרְבָּעִים הַלַּיְלָה אֲשֶׁר הִתְנַפָּלְתִּי כִּי אָמַר יְ־הוָה לְהַשְׁמִיד אֶתְכֶם.

^{Deut 9:25} And I lay prostrate before YHWH those forty days and forty nights, because YHWH was determined to destroy you.[8]

Purifying—When a woman gives birth to a boy, she is impure for seven days, and then goes through purification—likely connected with postpartum bleeding—for another thirty-three days, for a total of forty days, after which she can offer the sin offering (Lev 12:2–4).

If she gives birth to a girl, she is impure for fourteen days, and goes through purification for sixty-six days, for a total of eighty days, i.e., 40x2. These blocks of time express a complete process of purification before allowing her to be reintegrated into Temple life.^[9]

According to the Mishnah, during the first forty days of pregnancy, the fetus is not yet considered sufficiently alive (m. Niddah 3:7), and the Talmud declares a fetus at this early stage מיא בעלמא “just water” (b. Yebamot 69b).^[10]

Humiliation—Goliath’s taunting of Israel lasts until it becomes intolerable,

^{שמואל א יז:טז} וַיִּגַּשׁ הַפְּלִשְׁתִּי הַשְׁכֵּם וְהַעֲרֵב וַיִּתְיַצֵּב אַרְבָּעִים יוֹם.

^{1 Sam 17:16} The Philistine stepped forward morning and evening and took his stand for forty days.

At this point in the story, David is introduced, as he will be the one to solve the problem by killing the huge Philistine warrior.

Tolerance—Jonah informs the Ninevites that they have 40 days to repent, or else their city will be destroyed.

^{יונה ג:ד} וַיָּחֶל יוֹנָה לָבוֹא בָעִיר מַהֲלַךְ יוֹם אֶחָד וַיִּקְרָא וַיֹּאמַר עוֹד אַרְבָּעִים יוֹם וְנִינְוֵה נֶהְפָּכֶת.

^{Jonah 3:4} Jonah started out and made his way into the city the distance of one day’s walk, and proclaimed: “Forty days more, and Nineveh shall be overthrown!”

This expresses the outer limit of YHWH’s patience, once the people understand their sinfulness.

Forty Years: Fullness of Punishment or Time

When applied to years, the number forty still represents a full measure, sometimes of suffering or punishment, and other times of life.

Wilderness Wandering—A common trope found throughout the Bible is that of Israel spending forty years in the wilderness. Sometimes, this is associated with God’s care of Israel for this full period. For example, this is the length of time the manna falls:

^{שמות טז:לה} וּבְנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל אָכְלוּ אֶת הַמָּן אַרְבָּעִים שָׁנָה עַד בֹּאָם אֶל אֶרֶץ נוֹשָׁבֶת אֶת הַמָּן אָכְלוּ עַד בֹּאָם אֶל קְצֵה אֶרֶץ כְּנָעַן.

^{Exod 16:35} And the Israelites ate manna forty years until they came to a settled land; they ate the manna until they came to the border of the land of Canaan.

In Deuteronomy, the theme is especially dominant:

^{דברים ב:ז} כִּי יְ־הוָה אֱלֹהֶיךָ בֵּרַכְךָ בְּכֹל מַעֲשֵׂה יָדֶךָ יָדַע לֶכְתְּךָ אֶת הַמִּדְבָּר הַגָּדֹל הַזֶּה זֶה אַרְבָּעִים שָׁנָה יְ־הוָה אֱלֹהֶיךָ עִמָּךְ לֹא חָסַרְתָּ דָּבָר.

^{Deut 2:7} Indeed, YHWH your God has blessed you in all your undertakings. He has watched over your wanderings through this great wilderness; YHWH your God has been with you these past forty years: you have lacked nothing.

^{דברים כט:ד} וָאוֹלֵךְ אֶתְכֶם אַרְבָּעִים שָׁנָה בַּמִּדְבָּר לֹא בָלוּ שַׂלְמֹתֵיכֶם מֵעֲלֵיכֶם וְנַעַלְךָ לֹא בָלְתָה מֵעַל רַגְלֶךָ. ^כט:ה לֶחֶם לֹא אֲכַלְתֶּם וְיַיִן וְשֵׁכָר לֹא שְׁתִיתֶם לְמַעַן תֵּדְעוּ כִּי אֲנִי יְ־הוָה אֱלֹהֵיכֶם.

^{Deut 29:4} I led you through the wilderness forty years; the clothes on your back did not wear out, nor did the sandals on your feet;^{[11] 29:5} you had no bread to eat and no wine or other intoxicant to drink—that you might know that I YHWH am your God.

At the same time, Deuteronomy also presents this period as a time in which the Israelites undergo a full measure of testing:

^{דברים ח:ב} וְזָכַרְתָּ אֶת כָּל הַדֶּרֶךְ אֲשֶׁר הֹלִיכֲךָ יְ־הוָה אֱלֹהֶיךָ זֶה אַרְבָּעִים שָׁנָה בַּמִּדְבָּר לְמַעַן עַנֹּתְךָ לְנַסֹּתְךָ לָדַעַת אֶת אֲשֶׁר בִּלְבָבְךָ הֲתִשְׁמֹר (מצותו) [מִצְו‍ֹתָיו] אִם לֹא. ^ח:ג וַיְעַנְּךָ וַיַּרְעִבֶךָ וַיַּאֲכִלְךָ אֶת הַמָּן אֲשֶׁר לֹא יָדַעְתָּ וְלֹא יָדְעוּן אֲבֹתֶיךָ לְמַעַן הוֹדִעֲךָ כִּי לֹא עַל הַלֶּחֶם לְבַדּוֹ יִחְיֶה הָאָדָם כִּי עַל כָּל מוֹצָא פִי יְ־הוָה יִחְיֶה הָאָדָם.

^{Deut 8:2} Remember the long way that YHWH your God has made you travel in the wilderness these past forty years, that He might test you by hardships to learn what was in your hearts: whether you would keep His commandments or not. ^8:3 He subjected you to the hardship of hunger and then gave you manna to eat, which neither you nor your fathers had ever known,^[12] in order to teach you that man does not live on bread alone, but that man may live on anything that YHWH decrees.^[13]

Thus, the Israelites proved themselves to YHWH and also learned that YHWH can take care of them even in a barren wasteland.^[14]

Elsewhere, sometimes the wilderness years are envisioned as a punishment:

^{תהלים צה:י} אַרְבָּעִים שָׁנָה אָקוּט בְּדוֹר וָאֹמַר עַם תֹּעֵי לֵבָב הֵם וְהֵם לֹא יָדְעוּ דְרָכָי. ^צה:יא אֲשֶׁר נִשְׁבַּעְתִּי בְאַפִּי אִם יְבֹאוּן אֶל מְנוּחָתִי.

^{Ps 95:10} Forty years I was provoked by that generation; I thought, “They are a senseless people; they would not know My ways.” ^95:11 Concerning them I swore in anger, “They shall never come to My resting-place!”^[15]

In Numbers, the number of years is explained by the sin of the scouts, who took forty days to travel all through Canaan up to Lebo-Hamath in Lebanon to see the land:

^{במדבר יג:כה} וַיָּשֻׁבוּ מִתּוּר הָאָרֶץ מִקֵּץ אַרְבָּעִים יוֹם.

^{Num 13:25} At the end of forty days they returned from scouting the land.^[16]

That entire generation of adults will die in the wilderness, and their children will wander outside the land for forty years:

^{במדבר יד:לג} וּבְנֵיכֶם יִהְיוּ רֹעִים בַּמִּדְבָּר אַרְבָּעִים שָׁנָה וְנָשְׂאוּ אֶת זְנוּתֵיכֶם עַד תֹּם פִּגְרֵיכֶם בַּמִּדְבָּר. ^יד:לד בְּמִסְפַּר הַיָּמִים אֲשֶׁר תַּרְתֶּם אֶת הָאָרֶץ אַרְבָּעִים יוֹם יוֹם לַשָּׁנָה יוֹם לַשָּׁנָה תִּשְׂאוּ אֶת עֲו‍ֹנֹתֵיכֶם אַרְבָּעִים שָׁנָה וִידַעְתֶּם אֶת תְּנוּאָתִי.

^{Num 14:33} While your children roam the wilderness for forty years, suffering for your faithlessness, until the last of your carcasses is down in the wilderness. ^14:34 You shall bear your punishment for forty years, corresponding to the number of days—forty days—that you scouted the land: a year for each day. Thus you shall know what it means to thwart Me.^[17]

National Peace—In the book of Judges, forty years represents a break between periods of war. For example, after Othniel defeats the Arameans, we are told:

^{שופטים ג:יא} וַתִּשְׁקֹט הָאָרֶץ אַרְבָּעִים שָׁנָה וַיָּמָת עָתְנִיאֵל בֶּן קְנַז.

^{Judg 3:11} And the land had peace for forty years. And Othniel the Kenizzite died.

Forty here could represent a full generation, like in the story of the scouts, or just a complete period of time. The same is true after Deborah and Barak defeat Sisera and his king, Jabin of Hazor:

^{שופטים ד:כד} וַתֵּלֶךְ יַד בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל הָלוֹךְ וְקָשָׁה עַל יָבִין מֶלֶךְ כְּנָעַן עַד אֲשֶׁר הִכְרִיתוּ אֵת יָבִין מֶלֶךְ כְּנָעַן. // ^ה:לא ...וַתִּשְׁקֹט הָאָרֶץ אַרְבָּעִים שָׁנָה.

^{Judg 4:24} The hand of the Israelites bore harder and harder on King Jabin of Canaan, until they destroyed King Jabin of Canaan. //^{[18] 5:31} …And the land had peace for forty years.

The third judge who brings about this full forty years of peace is Gideon:

^{שופטים ח:כח} וַיִּכָּנַע מִדְיָן לִפְנֵי בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל וְלֹא יָסְפוּ לָשֵׂאת רֹאשָׁם וַתִּשְׁקֹט הָאָרֶץ אַרְבָּעִים שָׁנָה בִּימֵי גִדְעוֹן.

^{Judg 8:28} Thus Midian submitted to the Israelites and did not raise its head again; and the land was tranquil for forty years in Gideon’s time.

For Ehud, a multiple of forty is used—twice forty or two generations—likely communicating that he had been uniquely successful:

^{שופטים ג:ל} וַתִּכָּנַע מוֹאָב בַּיּוֹם הַהוּא תַּחַת יַד יִשְׂרָאֵל וַתִּשְׁקֹט הָאָרֶץ שְׁמוֹנִים שָׁנָה.

^{Judges 3:30} On that day, Moab submitted to Israel; and the land was tranquil for eighty years.

A Full Reign—Several rulers are said to have ruled for forty years. After Eli the High Priest falls back from his seat in shock and breaks his neck, we are told:

^{שמואל א ד:יח} ...וְהוּא שָׁפַט אֶת יִשְׂרָאֵל אַרְבָּעִים שָׁנָה.

^{1 Sam 4:18} …He had been a chieftain (or “judge”) of Israel for forty years.

Similarly, David and Solomon each rule Israel for forty years:^[19]

^{שמואל ב ה:ד} בֶּן שְׁלֹשִׁים שָׁנָה דָּוִד בְּמָלְכוֹ אַרְבָּעִים שָׁנָה מָלָךְ.

^{2 Sam 5:4} David was thirty years old when he became king, and he reigned forty years.^[20]

^{מלכים א יא:מב} וְהַיָּמִים אֲשֶׁר מָלַךְ שְׁלֹמֹה בִירוּשָׁלַ͏ִם עַל כָּל יִשְׂרָאֵל אַרְבָּעִים שָׁנָה.

^{1 Kgs 11:42} The length of Solomon’s reign in Jerusalem, over all Israel, was forty years.^[21]

Conversely, Samson’s tenure is only twenty years, half a generation, implying a criticism of this leader who is only half successful:

^{שופטים טו:כ} וַיִּשְׁפֹּט אֶת יִשְׂרָאֵל בִּימֵי פְלִשְׁתִּים עֶשְׂרִים שָׁנָה.

^{Judg 15:20} He led Israel in the days of the Philistines for twenty years.

Oppression—Sometimes, the oppression or punishment of a people lasts for forty years. Before the Samson story, we are told that the Philistines oppress the Israelites for forty years:

^{שופטים יג:א} וַיֹּסִפוּ בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל לַעֲשׂוֹת הָרַע בְּעֵינֵי יְ־הוָה וַיִּתְּנֵם יְ־הוָה בְּיַד פְּלִשְׁתִּים אַרְבָּעִים שָׁנָה.

^{Judg 13:1} The Israelites again did what was offensive to YHWH, and YHWH delivered them into the hands of the Philistines for forty years.

Ezekiel prophesies forty years of desolation for Egypt:

^{יחזקאל כט:יא} לֹא תַעֲבָר בָּהּ רֶגֶל אָדָם וְרֶגֶל בְּהֵמָה לֹא תַעֲבָר בָּהּ וְלֹא תֵשֵׁב אַרְבָּעִים שָׁנָה. ^כט:יב וְנָתַתִּי אֶת אֶרֶץ מִצְרַיִם שְׁמָמָה בְּתוֹךְ אֲרָצוֹת נְשַׁמּוֹת וְעָרֶיהָ בְּתוֹךְ עָרִים מָחֳרָבוֹת תִּהְיֶיןָ שְׁמָמָה אַרְבָּעִים שָׁנָה וַהֲפִצֹתִי אֶת מִצְרַיִם בַּגּוֹיִם וְזֵרִיתִים בָּאֲרָצוֹת.

^{Ezek 29:11} No foot of man shall traverse it, and no foot of beast shall traverse it; and it shall remain uninhabited for forty years. ^29:12 For forty years I will make the land of Egypt the most desolate of desolate lands, and its cities shall be the most desolate of ruined cities. And I will scatter the Egyptians among the nations and disperse them throughout the countries.

Only after forty years, will YHWH allow Egypt to recover:

^{יחזקאל כט:יג} כִּי כֹּה אָמַר אֲדֹנָי יְ־הוִה מִקֵּץ אַרְבָּעִים שָׁנָה אֲקַבֵּץ אֶת מִצְרַיִם מִן הָעַמִּים אֲשֶׁר נָפֹצוּ שָׁמָּה.

^{Ezek 29:13} Further, thus said the Lord YHWH: After a period of forty years, I will gather the Egyptians from the peoples among whom they were dispersed.

Ezekiel also receives a prophecy, in language similar to the story of the scouts, that he should lie down for forty days, one for each year of Israel’s punishment at the hands of the Babylonians:

^{יחזקאל ד:ו}...וְשָׁכַבְתָּ עַל צִדְּךָ (הימוני) [הַיְמָנִי] שֵׁנִית וְנָשָׂאתָ אֶת עֲו‍ֹן בֵּית יְהוּדָה אַרְבָּעִים יוֹם יוֹם לַשָּׁנָה יוֹם לַשָּׁנָה נְתַתִּיו לָךְ.

^{Ezek 4:6} …you shall lie another forty days on your right side and bear the punishment of the House of Judah. I impose on you one day for each year, one day for each year.^[22]

YHWH tells Abraham that his descendants will be slaves for four hundred years, 40x10, a full measure servitude, or perhaps ten generations of slaves:

^{בראשית טו:יג} וַיֹּאמֶר לְאַבְרָם יָדֹעַ תֵּדַע כִּי גֵר יִהְיֶה זַרְעֲךָ בְּאֶרֶץ לֹא לָהֶם וַעֲבָדוּם וְעִנּוּ אֹתָם אַרְבַּע מֵאוֹת שָׁנָה.

^{Gen 15:13} And He said to Abram, “Know well that your offspring shall be strangers in a land not theirs, and they shall be enslaved and oppressed four hundred years….”

Alternatively, in view of Isaac having been born when Abraham is 100 years old, this number might represent a “generation,” and thus we have 100x4. This harmonizes with God’s telling Abraham that his descendants would be rescued in the fourth dor, generation (15:16).^[23]

The story of Solomon dedicating the Temple tells that 480 years elapsed between the exodus from Egypt and the construction of Temple.^[24]

^{מלכים א ו:א} וַיְהִי בִשְׁמוֹנִים שָׁנָה וְאַרְבַּע מֵאוֹת שָׁנָה לְצֵאת בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל מֵאֶרֶץ מִצְרַיִם בַּשָּׁנָה הָרְבִיעִית בְּחֹדֶשׁ זִו הוּא הַחֹדֶשׁ הַשֵּׁנִי לִמְלֹךְ שְׁלֹמֹה עַל יִשְׂרָאֵל וַיִּבֶן הַבַּיִת לַי־הוָה.

^{1 Kgs 6:1} In the four hundred and eightieth year after the Israelites left the land of Egypt, in the month of Ziv—that is, the second month—in the fourth year of his reign over Israel, Solomon began to build the House of YHWH.

As 40 years represents a full generation, 480 signifies the passage of 12 generations, perhaps an allusion to the twelve tribes of Israel united under King Solomon.

Maturity—Forty-years-old seems to convey a full age of maturity.^[25] Isaac and his son Esau are both 40 when they get married:

^{בראשית כה:כ} וַיְהִי יִצְחָק בֶּן אַרְבָּעִים שָׁנָה בְּקַחְתּוֹ אֶת רִבְקָה בַּת בְּתוּאֵל הָאֲרַמִּי מִפַּדַּן אֲרָם אֲחוֹת לָבָן הָאֲרַמִּי לוֹ לְאִשָּׁה.

^{Gen 25:20} Isaac was forty years old when he took to wife Rebecca, daughter of Bethuel the Aramean of Paddan-aram, sister of Laban the Aramean.

^{בראשית כו:לד} וַיְהִי עֵשָׂו בֶּן אַרְבָּעִים שָׁנָה וַיִּקַּח אִשָּׁה אֶת יְהוּדִית בַּת בְּאֵרִי הַחִתִּי וְאֶת בָּשְׂמַת בַּת אֵילֹן הַחִתִּי.

^{Gen 26:34} When Esau was forty years old, he took to wife Judith daughter of Beeri the Hittite, and Basemath daughter of Elon the Hittite.

Caleb is forty years old when he was sent to scout the land, as he reminds Joshua when he asks for his inheritance to include Hebron:

^{יהושע יד:ז} בֶּן אַרְבָּעִים שָׁנָה אָנֹכִי בִּשְׁלֹחַ מֹשֶׁה עֶבֶד יְ־הוָה אֹתִי מִקָּדֵשׁ בַּרְנֵעַ לְרַגֵּל אֶת הָאָרֶץ וָאָשֵׁב אֹתוֹ דָּבָר כַּאֲשֶׁר עִם לְבָבִי.

^{Josh 14:7} I was forty years old when Moses the servant of YHWH sent me from Kadesh-barnea to scout out the land, and I gave him a forthright report.[26]

Moses stewardship of Israel begins when he is 80 years old (Exod 7:7), a double amount of full maturity, and he leads Israel for another forty years—a full generation—dying at 120 (Deut 31:2, 34:7).

Figurative Use of Numbers

In chronicle writing, such as the Babylonian Chronicle, years and dates are meant to be accurate and reliable. This is likely the intent in some chronicle-like biblical texts, such as the regnal years in the book of Kings (after Solomon).^[27] Nevertheless, literary use of numbers is as common in biblical narratives as assonance, alliteration, exaggeration, etc.

Biblical texts abound with artful speech, poetic justice, symbolism, subtext, and an assortment of stylistic devices, all aimed at enhancing the experience of hearing or reading about Israel’s ancestral tradition. The depiction of time itself is a part of this style, and should be seen as rhetorical artistry, not as historical record.

Addendum

Forty and Its Multiples for Gifts, and Measurements

While forty is most commonly used to mark time, it or a multiple of forty is used to mark objects or actions as well:

Silver—Abraham expresses his willingness to pay Ephron בְּכֶסֶף מָלֵא “with full silver-price” to acquire the cave of Machpelah (Gen 23:9). Ephron then mentions 400 shekels of silver, and Abraham pays it:

^{בראשית כג:טז} ...וַיִּשְׁקֹל אַבְרָהָם לְעֶפְרֹן אֶת הַכֶּסֶף אֲשֶׁר דִּבֶּר בְּאָזְנֵי בְנֵי חֵת אַרְבַּע מֵאוֹת שֶׁקֶל כֶּסֶף עֹבֵר לַסֹּחֵר.

^{Gen 23:16} … Abraham paid out to Ephron the money that he had named in the hearing of the Hittites—four hundred shekels of silver at the going merchants’ rate.

Gifts—Jacob gifts Esau an assortment of female sheep and goats (400), and male sheep and goats (40):

^{בראשית לב:טו} עִזִּים מָאתַיִם וּתְיָשִׁים עֶשְׂרִים רְחֵלִים מָאתַיִם וְאֵילִים עֶשְׂרִים.

^{Gen 32:15} 200 nanny-goats and 20 billy-goats; 200 ewes and 20 rams.^[28]

Similarly, Hazael brings the prophet Elisha 40 camels burdened with gifts:

^{מלכים ב ח:ט} וַיֵּלֶךְ חֲזָאֵל לִקְרָאתוֹ וַיִּקַּח מִנְחָה בְיָדוֹ וְכָל טוּב דַּמֶּשֶׂק מַשָּׂא אַרְבָּעִים גָּמָל...

^{2 Kgs 8:9} Hazael went to meet him, taking with him as a gift forty camel-loads of all the bounty of Damascus…

Lashes—As a punishment for certain offenses, Israelites are to be struck with forty lashes:

^{דברים כה:ב} וְהָיָה אִם בִּן הַכּוֹת הָרָשָׁע וְהִפִּילוֹ הַשֹּׁפֵט וְהִכָּהוּ לְפָנָיו כְּדֵי רִשְׁעָתוֹ בְּמִסְפָּר. ^כה:ג אַרְבָּעִים יַכֶּנּוּ לֹא יֹסִיף פֶּן יֹסִיף לְהַכֹּתוֹ עַל אֵלֶּה מַכָּה רַבָּה וְנִקְלָה אָחִיךָ לְעֵינֶיךָ.

^{Deut 25:2} If the guilty one is to be flogged, the magistrate shall have him lie down and be given lashes in his presence, by count, as his guilt warrants. ^25:3 He may be given up to forty lashes, but not more, lest being flogged further, to excess, your brother be degraded before your eyes.

Forty here represents a maximum tolerable punishment.^[29] In rabbinic literature, forty is also the amount of seʾot of pure water needed to fill a mikvah so that people can purify themselves in it (m. Mikvaot 1:7).^[30]

Troops—Israel fields 40,000 troops, indicating a full national army or a full tribal army.

^{יהושע ד:יג} כְּאַרְבָּעִים אֶלֶף חֲלוּצֵי הַצָּבָא עָבְרוּ לִפְנֵי יְ־הוָה לַמִּלְחָמָה אֶל עַרְבוֹת יְרִיחוֹ.

^{Josh 4:13} About forty thousand shock troops went across, at the instance of YHWH, to the steppes of Jericho for battle.

^{שופטים ה:ח} יִבְחַר אֱלֹהִים חֲדָשִׁים אָז לָחֶם שְׁעָרִים מָגֵן אִם יֵרָאֶה וָרֹמַח בְּאַרְבָּעִים אֶלֶף בְּיִשְׂרָאֵל.

^{Judg 5:8} When they chose new gods, was there a fighter then in the gates? No shield or spear was seen among forty thousand in Israel!

Horse stalls—Solomon had 40,000 stalls for his horses:

^{מלכים א ה:ו} וַיְהִי לִשְׁלֹמֹה אַרְבָּעִים אֶלֶף אֻרְו‍ֹת סוּסִים לְמֶרְכָּבוֹ וּשְׁנֵים עָשָׂר אֶלֶף פָּרָשִׁים.

^{1 Kgs 5:6} Solomon had 40,000 stalls of horses for his chariotry and 12,000 horsemen.

This may express that Solomon had the means to provide a mount to every soldier in his military.

Temple—The length of the Temple Solomon builds in Jerusalem is 40 cubits:

^{מלכים א ו:יז} וְאַרְבָּעִים בָּאַמָּה הָיָה הַבָּיִת הוּא הַהֵיכָל לִפְנָי.

^{1 Kgs 6:17} The front part of the House, that is, the Great Hall, measured 40 cubits.

Perhaps this represents the fullest measure of dedication to God or the fullest measure of beauty.^[31]